by Brian Hval Frost protected shallow foundations (FPSF) are used in cold climates because they are a cost-effective alternative to conventional deep foundations. Over 1 million homes have used this technique worldwide. It is accepted as the standard foundation design method in Scandinavian countries. FPSF homes are often cheaper to build as they eliminate deep excavations and use less foundation material. Heated homes and other structures are protected against frost heave by insulating the outside of the foundation below grade. A short wing of foam insulation stretches out from the foundation to make a frost barrier like this: Expanded PolyStyrene foam sheets are usually used. The thickness and extent of foam required are determined by historical climatology data like this: Some building design approval jurisdictions may require a professional engineer to review the calculations and stamp the foundation drawings. But the calculations are simple to do. There is also a wide range of foam installation options to give the required insulation R-value. If you live in a cold climate, FPSF is well worth looking into. It applies to both renovations and new construction. I have used it in Canada on two projects. One was to install a patio door in an existing basement foundation to make a basement walk-out like this: Foam wings on a gravel bed extend outwards and just below the threshold of the door. FPSF dramatically lowered the cost of making this renovation. The second project was for a new oceanfront home where it was essential to minimize disturbance to the soil. FPSF foam wings around the wall perimeter provided the needed frost protection. Soil integrity and stability was maintained and the overall cost was much less than a traditional foundation. Further links for curious readers: Frost-Protected Shallow Foundation Design - Green Building Solutions Frost Protected Shallow Foundations

What is a Circular economy? A circular economy is an industrial system that is restorative or regenerative by intention and design. A circular economy replaces the linear economy, and its ‘end-of-life’ concept with restoration and regeneration, shifts towards the use of renewable energy, eliminates the use of toxic chemicals and aims for the elimination of waste through the design of materials, products and systems that can be repaired and reused. The circular economy concept shown in the bottom part of the Figures below illustrates an evolution of the current Linear Economy (top part) to the Circular Economy (bottom part) which is achieved through the application of principles: maintain, repair, reuse, remanufacture and recycle, as well as leasing and servicing. definition by LETI Trying to achieve the carbon targets cannot be realised without stretching the idea of incorporating a fully circular economy. To reach a zero-carbon national economy, the consideration of design and construction of infrastructure and buildings should be thought not in a separate manner however thought of as a circular cycle of things being reused and put back into the system as it is the core principles of a circular economy. Circular economy principles could be achieved only by redeveloping the entire value chain to generate an alternative approach to developments. Circular Economy/net-zero The core pillar for achieving a circular development of the construction sector will be to extremely emphasise the need for interdisciplinary collaboration of all the stakeholders associated with the pipeline of project delivery. Contractors, designers, suppliers, facility managers and investors should all work from an early stage of the projects to deliver projects of a circular manner achieved by having a system-thinking approach with considerations of the social, financial, natural, built environment and human frameworks in which businesses operate. To achieve the full potential of a circular way of thinking a life cycle thinking should be established as a standard work of assessment. Assessments developed in the industry such as life cycle assessment (LCA), life cycle cost (LCC) should be consistent to succeed in a modern circular economy. What is LCA? The life cycle approach way of thinking is dating back to the 1960s where it was first introduced by Harry Teasley at Coca-Cola Company in 1969, where he used LCA for purposes of quantifying the energy, material and environmental burden from the packages of the product (DU, 2015). Sustainability is very difficult to measure and quantify, however, there is a solution that is based on life cycle thinking (LCT). Various standards introduced such as the BS EN ISO 14040-2016, BS EN 15804-2012 and BS EN 15978 outline the fundamental techniques and principles of LCA assessment and quantification methodology in general and specifically for the build environment industry. Furthermore, the sustainability performance of an asset is not only related to environmental but also aspects of social and economic performance is assessed from a whole-life standpoint (BS15978, 2011). The use of LCA can assist to identify opportunities to improve the environmental performance of products at various stages of their life cycle, by enlightening decision-makers in the industry with real data, with the purpose to revaluate strategies and planning based on a holistic cycle approach to projects (ISO14040, 2006). LCA measuring techniques provide results based on scientific data analysis that help to set a benchmark on the environmental burden of processes and assets and help to spot environmentally inefficient components of systems with the aim of re-think and redesign for improving environmental performance (ISO14040, 2006). When LCA is adopted from an early stage of a bridge project a quantitative comparison of the environmental performance of different design options could be achieved. For this study, LCA methodology is applied in accordance with ISO standards and other recognised approaches with the aim of analysing the global warming potential by calculating the carbon dioxide equivalent emissions (tCO2e) of bridges for stages from Cradle to Practical completion (Modules A1-A5). Download full Report here:

By: Lochan Yadav BLACK COTTON SOIL Black cotton soil has a tendency to shrink and swell excessively. It is basically due to the presence of a compound named montmorillonite. When these type of soil come in contact with water, they swell and when becomes dry, it shrinks. This alternate process of swelling and shrinking results in the differential settlement of the foundation which in turn causes cracks in the building. The cracks thus formed are sometimes 15 to 20 cm wide and 2.5 to 4.5 m deep. Therefore necessary precautions need to be taken during construction to avoid any damage to building foundation. PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN Construction should be done in the dry season. Under reamed pile foundation is also a good choice of foundation in black cotton soil. In the case of important structures, raft foundation should be provided. For less important structures (such as boundary wall construction), the foundation should preferably be taken at least 15 cm below the depth at which cracks in soil cease to occur. The maximum load on black cotton soil should be limited to 5 tonnes/m2. If there is a chance for water to come in contact with the foundation, then the load should be limited to 4.9 tonnes/m2. Foundation should be placed at a depth where the cracks cease to extend. The minimum depth of the foundation should be at least 1.5 m. The main wall of the building must be provided with all-round reinforced concrete ties or bands. Reinforced concrete ties or bands having 10 to 15 cm deep should be placed at plinth level, lintel level and eaves level. In case the depth of black cotton soil is only 1 m to 1.5 m, then completely remove the entire black cotton soil and place the foundation below that depth. 10. Try to avoid direct contact of black cotton soil with a foundation material. This can be achieved by making wider trenches for foundation and filling spaces on either side of the foundation masonry with sand or morroum. 11. Ram the bed of the foundation trench to make it farm and hard. On this rammed bed, spread a thick layer of morroum (i.e. 30 cm) in two layers, each layer being 15 cm. each layer should be water and rammed properly to get the highest possible density. On this compacted layer of morroum, place either sand or stone up to the desired height where concrete foundation bed has to be made. 12. For main walls or for load-bearing walls, the width of the trench should be dug 40 cm wider than the width of the foundation. Then fill the space on either side of the trench (i.e. 20 cm in each side) with coarse sand. This is done to separate the foundation masonry from direct contact with black cotton soil. In the case of a compound wall, this width of sand filling can be reduced to 15 cm on each side. Useful Documentation EN 1997-1 Eurocode 7 - How to design Spread Foundations

by Brian Hval Wildfires destroy homes and memories! Here is what you can do to minimize the risk! Lots of tips for the fire protection of both new and existing homes! The homes that are spared a wildfire disaster have one or more of the following firewise features in common: Location - the building site is located away from a forested slope. Wildfires tend to rush upwards. Hot air rises, right? Yes, the view is great peering over an edge but that makes your house a great target for fire rushing up the slope! Building Construction - here are some of the things you can do to improve fire resistance of your home: Roof - should be made from metal or tile. Something that cannot burn. Houses with those attractive wood shakes are sure to burn when they trap all those sparks and embers from the fire! Exterior Walls - use metal, concrete, stucco, tile or cement board. It is hard to destroy if it cannot burn! Forget fire-resistant vinyl siding! It just sags and melts into a blazing puddle of goo! New homes should be built using steel studs in the exterior walls instead of wood 2x4s or 2x6's. Windows - are double-paned glass. Forget fibreglass skylights or deck coverings! Plastic just go, poof! Window Trim - metal of course! Why put PVC around that expensive glass? The heat is just going to melt the vinyl trim! Then the glass window falls out … and lets the fire inside! Decks and Patios - are always made from concrete pavers, tiles or stamped concrete. Never wood! Fencing - use chain link, iron or rock. Those tall cedar fences and nice-looking wood trellis make the perfect “fire ladders” bringing fire directly to your house! Landscaping - flammable shrubs, flowers are kept well away from the house! Fire Break - clear vegetation from the immediate vicinity of your home. This may stop a slow-moving fire or at least provide room for firefighters to defend your home! Tall Trees - they may look great and provide shade … but will the flaming branches blow onto your house? Or will the blazing trunk crash onto your roof? Keep the trees well away! Trash the Tinder - savvy owners keep roof gutters and other areas free of flammable tree needles and dried leaves. Why feed the fire? Propane Tanks - should be secured in their own metal building or fireproof enclosure. Vehicles - are never left parked near the house if there is an imminent wildfire event. If you insist, why not just place some jerry cans of gasoline on your front doorstep? Same effect on a fire! The vehicle tires become torches and the gas tank just adds to the drama of your house burning down! Firewater Tanks - should always be metal like this: A swimming pool is a good alternate source of water. Or a nearby pond or lake. Hoses and Sprinklers - install roof sprinklers so they are ready to go when needed. Supply lines should be inside the house with metal outlets placed in strategic locations on the roof. Test your sprinkler system BEFORE it is needed! Firewater Pump Power - should be independent. You cannot rely on grid electric power to keep sprinklers going! Evacuation Preparations - have all your key documents, medications, etc. ready to go in a bag by the door. Fireproof safes are NOT dependable in a major fire. Move it or lose it! Evacuate when instructed to do so. Have at least two escape routes. Don't stay behind to defend your home unless you have a secure path of retreat, i.e. boat on a lake! Release penned animals that you cannot take with you! Remember … all that stuff perishable in a fire can be replaced! You and your loved ones come first! Wildfire survival? It is possible if you are prepared! Further links for curious readers: How to become part of a Firewise Community: by Brian Hval

The global casino market is approximated to have gross of 450 billion U.S dollars Over 100 million professional poker players worldwide are winning big money everyday 👉 Visit Structures Insider's homepage for more stories.👈 5.Marina Bay Sands, Singapore Average night stay price: £387 rate per night with a 9.1/10 rating per kayak Size of property: The resort includes a 2,561-room hotel, a 120,000-square-metre (1,300,000 sq ft) convention-exhibition centre, a 74,000-square-metre (800,000 sq ft) and the world's largest atrium casino with 500 tables and 1,600 slot machines. The complex is topped by a 340-metre-long (1,120 ft) SkyPark with a capacity of 3,900 people and a 150 m (490 ft) infinity swimming pool, set on top of the world's largest public cantilevered platform, which overhangs the north tower by 67 m (220 ft). The 20-hectare resort was designed by Moshe Safdie architects. 4.Caesars Palace Las Vegas Average night stay price: £308 rate per night with a 9.0/10 rating per kayak Size of property: The hotel has 3,976 rooms and suites in six towers and a convention facility of over 300,000 square feet (28,000 m2). The casino also features a 4,500-square-foot (420 m2) 24-hour poker room. 3.The Bellagio, Las Vegas Average night stay price: £223 rate per night with an 8.7/10 rating per kayak Size of property: Inside Bellagio, Dale Chihuly's Fiori di Como, composed of over 2,000 hand-blown glass flowers, covers 2,000 sq ft (190 m2) of the lobby ceiling. The main (original) tower of Bellagio, with 3,015 rooms, has 36 floors and a height of 508 ft (151 m). The Spa Tower, which opened on December 23, 2004, and stands to the south of the main tower, has 33 floors, a height of 392 ft (119 m) and contains 935 rooms. 2.Venetian Macao, Macao, China Average night stay price: £144 rate per night with an 8.9/10 rating per kayak Size of property: The resort has 3,000 suites, 1,200,000 sq ft (110,000 m2) of convention space, 1,600,000 sq ft (150,000 m2) of retail, 550,000 square feet (51,000 m2) of casino space – with 3,400 slot machines and 800 gambling tables and the 15,000-seat Cotai Arena for entertainment and sports events. 1. Wynn Las Vegas Average night stay price: £231 rate per night with a 9.3/10 rating per kayak Size of property: The 614-foot (187 m)-high hotel has 45 floors, with the 2,716 rooms ranging in size from 640 sq ft (59 m2) to villas at 8,900 sq ft (830 m2). The complex also includes a 189,000 sq ft (17,600 m2) casino, a convention center with 290,000 sq ft (27,000 m2) of space and 76,000 sq ft (7,100 m2) of retail space. Together with the adjacent Encore, the entire Wynn resort complex has a total of 4,750 rooms, making it the world's seventh-largest hotel. Source: Wikipedia | KAYAK

if he were to give his 25-year-old self advice, Carlos Slim, the founder of Grupo Carso, would say to be practical and have clear and attainable goals. Slim was born on 28 January 1940, in Mexico City to Maronite Catholics from Lebanon. He went on to study civil engineering at the National Autonomous University of Mexico, where he also concurrently taught algebra and linear programming. 👉 Visit Structures Insider's homepage for more stories.👈 In 2010, Carlos Slim Helú grabbed the title of world’s richest man from Microsoft founder Bill Gates. The first and so far only person from a developing nation to top Forbes’ World Billionaires list. Quotes from Slim book " Richest Man: Carlos Slim In His Own Words Buy at Amazon 👉 https://amzn.to/2WgWZhs Though Slim was a civil engineering major, he also displayed an interest in economics. He took economics courses in Chile once he finished his engineering degree. Graduating as a civil engineering major, Slim has stated that his mathematical ability and his background of linear programming was a key factor in helping him gain an edge in the business world, especially when reading financial statements. Top Quotes of Carlos Slim Be optimistic, and not guided by your fears. Everything you do in your business must have a purpose to improve the business. You can only see that through the numbers. Make sure that you can measure the impact of your decisions. Don’t try to be and do everything yourself; rather, create alliances and partnerships with others. Read more: 5 books you NEED to own if you are a 1st-year civil engineering student Top 5 engineering consulting firms 2019 What's the most impressive ancient structure in the world? Early life 👶 Slim was born on 28 January 1940, in Mexico City, to parents both Maronite Christians from Lebanon. Slim always knew he wanted to be a businessman and began to develop his business and investment acumen at a young age. He received business lessons from his father Julián, who taught him finance, management and accounting, teaching him how to read financial statements as well as the importance of keeping accurate financial records, a practice that Slim carries on to this day. Essential Books for Civil Engineering Students Amazon's Choice At the age of 11, Slim invested in a government savings bond that taught him about the concept of compound interest. He eventually saved every financial and business transaction he made into a personal ledger book which he keeps to this day. At the age of 12, he made his first stock purchase, by purchasing shares in a Mexican bank. By the age of 15, Slim had become a shareholder in Mexico's largest bank. At the age of 17, he earned 200 pesos a week working for his father's company. He went on to study civil engineering at the National Autonomous University of Mexico, where he also concurrently taught algebra and linear programming.

Introduction Construction projects can vary from very small local magnitude to large national dimensions with inherent features that make them complicated enterprises to run (e.g.HS2) characterised by high levels of complexity, uniqueness of works, uncertainty and extensive planning. Hereafter comes the role of the project manager which is responsible for the development and delivery of a project to the client’s requirements and specifications. As an established discipline, management of whole projects from client’s idea to funding coordination, project managers (PM) have the responsibility of control and delivery of the procurement, production, administration, design, construction and personnel management of projects. As defined by the Construction Industry Council (CIC) the primary purpose of project management is to add significant and specific value to the process of delivering construction projects (CIOB, 2014). London Heathrow Terminal 5, UK The BAA Heathrow Terminal 5 (T5) was designed to add 50% to the capacity of Heathrow and has been described as a complex multidisciplinary project with a peak monthly spend of £80 million. Completed in 2008, T5 used an innovative legal contract, the ‘T5 Agreement’ which in essence was a cost-reimbursable form of contract in which suppliers’ profits were ring-fenced and the client retains all the risk (Potts, 2008). By moving away from a lump-sum contract, BAA payments to contractors were based on meeting milestones set in that agreement as well as financial rewards of success due to project finishing on time and within budget was shared. Furthermore, by prioritising time and quality over cost, BAA decided to cover the costs when contractors made mistakes with the aim that they would be much more likely to own up quickly to the mistake and hence save money and time since all the risk was on the client’s side. The philosophy of this project was found successful since T5 finished on time and under the agreed budget (Potts, 2008). Further Reading High Speed 2, UK On the other hand, High Speed 2 has a less successful story. From an original budget of £32.7 billion set in 2012, current speculations of the Oakervee review expects the cost to be around £106 billion as shown in Figure below (Pratley, 2020). The Oakervee review stresses the need for altering the procurement and contracting model used to cut cost as well as reflect on ways to improve cost estimates at early stages where a better evaluation of cost and time should be considered (Oakervee, 2019).

by Khalad Bin Introduction Trusses are widely used in bridges, buildings, and other infrastructures. The function of a truss is to provide turgidity to the skeleton. A truss is an assembly of metallic elements (bars, rods, pipes, etc). The elements of a truss are interdependent and exert force on one another, to survive the external load and burden. A truss is used instead of RCC and concrete beams. Trusses are of different types with regard to their designs and shapes. Elements of Truss Almost all the trusses are made up of three fundamental components. The chord, the bottom, and the members. 1. Upper stringer in a truss is called the chord. 2. The lower stringer of the truss is called the bottom. 3. Members, also called struts are the bars, rods, and strips that connect the chord and bottom of the truss. Types of Trusses Basically, there are two types of truss on the basis of their design and working mechanism. Pitched Truss Parallel Chord Truss Pitched Truss: In a pitched truss, the chord (upper stringer) and bottom (the lower stringer) are not parallel. The chord of the truss is extended outward like an arch or a cone. The extended chord of the truss provides extra strength to the truss. The pitched trusses are used in constructing roofs of the buildings, especially in the area of snowfall. The cone-shaped roofs do not allow the snowfall to dump on the roof while making the snowfall slip down from the edges of the roof. Parallel Truss: A parallel truss is made up of the parallel chord and bottom. The chord and bottom run straight in a parallel path. Both the stringers (chord and bottom) are interconnected by means of struts (the connecting rods). If compared, the pitched trusses are stronger than the parallel truss. A parallel truss is generally used instead of girders and beams. Mixing both of the types the truss are further classified into the following types: Warren Truss Octet Truss Prat Truss Bowstring Truss King post Truss Lenticular Truss Town’s Lattice Truss Vierendeel Truss (1). Warren Truss: It is a very simple type of trusses, in which the truss members form a series of equilateral triangles. These are included in the category of the parallel truss. (2). Octet Truss: In this type of trusses, the truss members are made up of all equivalent equilateral triangles. This is a very complicated truss, in which each triangle is associated with the other in multi-dimensions. This type of truss is strongest as compared to the rest of the types. This type of trusses is designed with very high skill and is very difficult to understand. (3). Pratt Truss: In 1844, the engineers of the Boston railway track designed it. Two types of members are used in this truss. One is vertical and the other is a diagonal member. The two types of members consecutively, follow one another. The vertical members are for compression and the diagonal members are for responding tension. (4). Bowstring Truss: Bowing Strings are used in this type of trusses. The bowstrings act as an arch. These strings give extra turgidity to the truss. These were, first used in World War II. The need for such types of trusses was felt, the curved roof of aircraft was to be designed. (5). King post Truss: In this type of trusses, two angled members/struts support a vertical strut. It is very simple to design but frequently used truss. In this design, the vertical member/strut is called Kingpost. (6). Lenticular Truss: Lenticular Truss was, first time used in the Gaunless Railway bridge of Stockholm and Darlington in 1823. In this type, the chord and the bottom, are arched and connect with each other at both ends. (7). Town’s Lattice Truss: In these trusses, the inclined members are used which cross over one another at frequent points. An American architect “Itheal Town” designed it, this is why is known after his name.

by H. Larry Elman When you started your career as an engineer, what was your initial months like? Was it tough? Were you scared? I did like to hear how about your experience when you started out. Before entering MIT, I had a small amount of technical job experience. In 1st Term Sophmore I was required to design an entire aircraft, from the proverbial “clean sheet of paper.” A few months later, I took student employment as a wind tunnel test technician on a real wind tunnel -- we had the trans-sonic and supersonic performance tests of the actual B-70 (small steel model). I chose “Coop" which meant overload and Summer School BUT 6 months hands-on as a Junior Engineer at Douglas Aircraft Flight Test Division…..AS A JUNIOR ENGINEER ON THE FLIGHT TEST TEAM FOR THE DC-8 JET AIRLINER, 1958. I was NOT scared; it was NOT tough. Interesting. At times trivial, but at times challenging. Just a job. But notice how carefully I had been groomed for it. However, there was one incident which defined much of my career and reputation from age 18 or 19 on. All major aircraft components were tested to failure in the lab in “Environmental Chambers.” That is engineer talk for “run the equipment to destruction while it is inside (alternately) huge stoves or huge refrigerators.” One day I was to assist a very senior hydraulics specialist engineer. We entered the chamber and I noticed a drain hole directly below the flap actuator we were testing. The other side of that drain was a rubber hose leading to AND THROUGH the chamber wall. I looked outside - that rubber hose lay on the ground beneath the chair and table where someone was to be stationed to take notes. I suggested that the hose needed to lead elsewhere and be restrained. I got told that I was too junior to be allowed an opinion. An older technician politely explained to the high ranking hydraulics specialist that my comment was valid and company safety regs were being violated. The hydraulics specialist uttered some remarks about how the labour union sabotaged company schedules and how all techies needed to be fired. When everybody calmed down, His Royal Ass stationed ME directly over the still unrestrained rubber hose. I demanded the hose be tied down. Someone from the Union, someone from Safety, His Royal Hydraulics Expert, the most senior Techie -- all went into conference, and a tie-down was arranged. The final 3 feet of it was an aluminium tube which His Royalty bent BY HAND to aim at the feet of whoever was to be taking data. Even with all this, things escalated and I was amazed at how many profane exclamations I could utter while retaining a calm voice and a coherent description of TEST STAND SAFETY. He replied with distinct threats of my being fired. I inquired about the marital status of several generations of his forebears and told him I would be at my desk in the office. I left. I was at my desk, Marks Handbook was opened to the Hydraulics Testing Chapter, and the Douglas Flight Test Safety Handbook was beside it. A fairly senior manager came over and asked what I was doing. I BSed that I was so snowed by the brilliance of the hydraulics guy that I had to come up and read a textbook. Just after he walked away, a siren went off -- the siren indicating major injuries on a test stand. The manager went RUNNING by. Remember the hand-bent aluminum pipe attached to the end of the drain hose? When the flap actuator failed in that first test run, 3000 psi hydraulic pressure went directly into the drain hose and STRAIGHTENED OUT the aluminum pipe…..DIRECTLY into the crotch of the hydraulics engineer who had ordered ME to stand RIGHT THERE and take data. The high-pressure hydraulic fluid was at VERY HIGH TEMPERATURE. He was out on sick leave for quite some time. The high manager? After things calmed down, he came over to my desk and made some sarcastic remarks about my reading Marks Handbook. They were more sardonic than critical, and my leaving my “assigned location" never came up. My careful attention to SAFETY and my reputation on that issue began there. Do you have a question/story about career advice ? Submit it here and get it published on our site

A column is a structural element that transfers the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below through compression. Column history goes back to the Ancient Egyptians where stoned columns were firstly constructed Nowadays most of the columns are made of a combination of concrete and steel ( reinforced concrete) Three main failure mode of concrete columns are Buckling, Pure Compression and Shear. Visit Structures Insider's homepage for more stories. 1.Buckling: Slender structural members loaded axially in compression will experience buckling. A relatively slender compression member (e.g. a column) may deflect laterally and fail by bending rather than failing by direct compression. The behaviour can be demonstrated by compressing a plastic ruler. When lateral bending occurs, we can say that the column has buckled. Buckling is one of the major causes of failures in structures, and therefore the possibility of buckling should always be considered in the design. Are you a student? Join the SI Platform now Submit your work 📝 and get featured 📌 on our website 💥 Definition of Bending Moment A bending moment (BM) is a measure of the bending effect that can occur when an external force (or moment) is applied to a structural element that causes the element to deform and bend. This concept is important in structural engineering as it is can be used to calculate where, and how much bending may occur when forces are applied determining the maximum deformation a structural member will undergo. A simple way to visualise bending moment is a diagram of a simply supported beam which means both ends of the beam can rotate and hence there is no bending moment at those locations. The diagram below shows that maximum bending moment is governed in the mid-span of this simply supported beam and maximum shear occurs at the supports. Essential Books for Civil Engineering Students SI's Choice 2.Pure Compression: Compression is one of the fundamental mechanics of deformable bodies. DEFINITION: compression /kəmˈprɛʃ(ə)n/ noun the action of compressing or being compressed. the reduction in volume (causing an increase in pressure) of the fuel mixture in an internal combustion engine before ignition. The axial force P acting at the cross-section is the resultant of the continuously distributed stresses. Elements that are pushed together or carry a load, that tend to compress, the forces are called compressive stress. 3.Shear: Tension is about pulling and compression is about pushing, then shear is about SLIDING. Shearing forces are unaligned forces pushing one part of a body in one specific direction, and another part of the body in the opposite direction. Shear strain = angle through which material is distorted as a result of shear stress N. William A. Nash defines shear force in terms of planes: "If a plane is passed through a body, a force acting along this plane is called a shear force or shearing force." Sources: Wikipedia , Mechanics of Materials , Structures , designingbuildingsWiki If you want to better understand these concepts we would recommend this book. Structures OR WHY THINGS DONT FALL DOWN, J. E. Gordon Key features 🌉🏢 Main Topics: General understanding of Structures Content Summary: Compression and bending structures, Tension structures, The difficult birth of the science of elasticity. BUY at Amazon here: https://amzn.to/2YKQsx4 This book is ideal for someone that is considering studying civil engineering. The book provides a fundamental understanding of basic concepts and explains the history behind the complex formulas used in solid mechanics. It is for anyone who has wondered why suspension bridges don't collapse under eight lanes of traffic, how dams hold back thousands of gallons of water, or what principles guide the design of skyscraper. Suggested by Elon Musk: When Musk started SpaceX, he was coming from a coding background. But he took it upon himself to learn the fundamentals of rocket science. "It is really, really good if you want a primer on structural design," Musk said in an interview with KCRW, a Southern California radio station. You May Also Like: What's the most impressive ancient structure in the world? 5 books you NEED to own if you are a 1st-year civil engineering student What's the most impressive ancient structure in the world?

A hydraulic jump 🌊 is a phenomenon that is frequently observed in open channels such as rivers, canals, spillways and weirs and is engineered for purposes of dissipating excess amounts of energy. A hydraulic jump is formed when high-velocity liquid flow is discharged into a zone of lower velocity, creating an abrupt increase in depth hence, dissipating huge amounts of energy ⚡️. This energy is the alteration of the flow’s initial kinetic energy to potential energy with some energy lost unavoidably in the form of friction, turbulence, eddying, heat and noise in the process. The distinctive behaviour of supercritical flow and sub-critical flow is analysed to the extent of understanding the reason for the formation of the hydraulic jump. Moreover, the parameter of the Froude number (Fr) is very useful towards the understanding of the occurrence of energy dissipation and the creation of the hydraulic jump. Conservation equations such as mass, linear momentum, Froude number and energy are used to investigate and detail analyse the flow of open-channel. Essential Books for Civil Engineering Students Amazon's Choice PRINCIPLES 📚 In 1914, Raleigh calculated the change in fluid depth associated with the shock wave from a hydraulic jump and introduced the principles of continuity and conservation of momentum. To better understand the hydraulic jump an understanding of the Froude Number should be made. In simplification, Fr number is a dimensionless quantity that is an indicator of resistance of objects moving in the water and hence the type of the water flow can be defined. In order to have a hydraulic jump, the Froude number needs to be greater than or equal to 1 which can be defined as Super-critical flow (Fr>1) or critical flow (Fr=1) respectively. Are you a student? Join the SI Platform now Submit your work 📝 and get featured 📌 on our website 💥 As shown in figure1 the hydraulic jump is formed when liquid at high velocity (V1) discharges into a zone of lower velocity (V2). This sudden change in velocity creates an abrupt increase in depth which is typically accompanied by violent turbulence, eddying, air entrainment and surface undulations which contribute to the inevitable loss of energy E of the flow. V1 is the supercritical flow and it occurs at depths below the critical depth which is the depth at the point of minimum energy. Whereas, V2 is known as sub-critical flow and occurs above the critical depth. Weak (Undular) jump (1 < Fr1 < 2.5) 💪 Oscillating jump (2.5 < Fr1 < 4.5) 💪💪 Steady Jump (4.5 < Fr1 < 9) 💪💪💪 Strong jump (Fr1 > 9) 💪💪💪💪💪 Visit Structures Insider Engineering to find more ENGINEERING USES 🛠 The most common use of hydraulic jumps is the dam's spillways. The hydraulic jump is used to dissipate large quantities of energy. The reason for this energy dissipation is due to some factors: To decelerate the excess kinetic energy of the liquid so to not damage the structure of the dam and cause failure. It prevents the erosion of the downstream dam surface since the velocity is lowered. Hydraulic jumps are ideal for the mixing of chemicals for water purification and treatment plans purposes. Additionally, because of the high turbulent flow, the phenomenon of air entrainment is observed which is useful for removing waste and pollution from the flowing river. A Book that may help Mechanics of Fluids, Bernard Massey Key features 🌊 Main Topics: Fundamental Knowledge of Fluid Mechanics. Content Summary: Viscosity, Bernoulli's equation, Fluids in Motion, Flow with a Free Surface, Laminar Flow, The Momentum Equation... BUY at Amazon here: https://amz37AcRBzn.to/ "It is a book for engineers rather than mathematicians" The book introduces the basic principles of fluid mechanics in a detailed and clear manner. This bestselling textbook provides the sound physical understanding of fluid flow that is essential for an honours degree course in civil or mechanical engineering as well as courses in aeronautical and chemical engineering. Focusing on the engineering applications of fluid flow, rather than mathematical techniques, students are gradually introduced to the subject, with the text moving from the simple to the complex, and from the familiar to the unfamiliar. SI units are used throughout and there are many worked examples. You May Also Like: REFERENCES · Douglas, J. (2011). Fluid mechanics. Harlow: Prentice Hall, pp.547-550. · Aboutcivil.org. (2019). Hydraulic Jump - Calculation, Effects & Applications of Hydraulic Jump. [online] Available at: https://www.aboutcivil.org/hydraulic-jump-calculations-effects-applications.html [Accessed 4 Mar. 2019]. · Aboutcivil.org. (2019). Hydraulic Jump - Calculation, Effects & Applications of Hydraulic Jump. [online] Available at: https://www.aboutcivil.org/hydraulic-jump-calculations-effects-applications.html [Accessed 4 Mar. 2019]. · The Constructor. (2019). Hydraulic Jump -Types and Characteristics of Hydraulic Jump. [online] Available at: https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/hydraulic-jump-types-characteristics/12091/ [Accessed 4 Mar. 2019].

What does Buckling mean? Buckling is one of the major causes of failures in structures and particularly in slender columns. Buckling is caused by the failure in compression due to the material strength and stiffness properties but also from instability and geometric failure. Buckling is the sudden change in the shape of a structural component under loads such as the bowing of a column under compression or the wrinkling of a plate under shear. A member is said to have buckled when the structure suddenly changes shape. 👉 Visit Structures Insider's homepage for more stories.👈 The transition between stable and unstable conditions happens at a value called " critical buckling load "( Pcr ) which can be calculated using Euler’s Formula. Where: Pcr = Critical Buckling load 𝐸 = Elastic Modulus 𝐼 = least second moment of area (I=bd3/12) Stated that 𝐸 and 𝐼 are material constants, the linear relationship between the length and critical load can be found. Stable, Unstable and Neutral Equilibrium Stable Equilibrium ( 0 < P < Pcr ) When an axial load is less than the critical load and the geometry of the strut is straight 𝜃=0. Unstable Equilibrium (P > Pcr ) When an axial load is greater than the critical load. Nevertheless, the structure is still in equilibrium if the angle is kept to 0 degrees (𝜃 = 0). However, the strut is unstable and cannot maintain its stability therefore by the slightest disturbance, the strut will buckle and fail. Neutral Equilibrium (P = Pcr ) When an axial load is equal to the critical load the strut is neither stable nor unstable, it is at the peak of stability and instability. That been said the structure can handle small angles without buckling. Different Support Reactions Effects The conditions of the support reactions influence the buckling of a material. As shown above, the effective length is at a maximum (2L) when there are no support reactions placed to the strut. Therefore, we can evaluate that the number of support reactions has a relationship to the buckling displacement of the strut. Buckling due to compression can be observed by comparing it to the sin curve elongations. The strut tends to buckle in the centre of its length. By looking at the data collected in a laboratory test the theoretical buckling load is higher than the experimental and this is due to the material imperfection but also due to the different support reactions that can create different displacement of the strut (buckling). Essential Books for Civil Engineering Students SI reccomended Are you a student? Join the SI Platform now Submit your work 📝 and get featured 📌 on our website 💥 A conclusion for your Lab Report To conclude, the experiment showed the linearity between load and length. The data obtained indicate that the longer struts were experiencing a lower buckling load than the shorter struts. Both of them had the same material properties so due to the length of the strut the buckling values vary. Linear elastic behaviour is shown of the material as the graph logP vs logL is plotted. The evaluation is that by decreasing length and increasing the cross-section of the strunt, critical buckling load is higher making the material to resist to buckling at higher loads applied. A linear relationship is shown on the graph You May Also Find Useful: The difference between Buckling, Compression & Shear Tension is about pulling and compression is about pushing, then shear is about sliding. When lateral bending occurs, we can say that the column has experienced buckling. Read More...